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The Cretan desire for independence, combined with the tendency for resistance, resurfaced in 1940. The Cretan Division took part in the fight to repel the Italian forces of Mussolini from northern Greece. After Mussolini’s failure, Greece became the target of Hitler’s forces. In April of 1941, Nazi Germany began its attack against mainland Greece, rapidly penetrated the Greek defences, and occupied the country.

With Cretan troops trapped, the Germans began their assault on largely unprotected Crete. The elite German airborne forces landed by parachute and glider on 20 May 1941. Only about 30,000 poorly equipped troops of the British Commonwealth and 12,000 Greeks defended the island along with the local population.

The Battle of Crete lasted only ten days, but produced enormous losses on both sides. Although heavily outgunned, the Commonwealth troops and local fighters effectively wiped out the German airborne division. The German capture of the airfield at Maleme near Chania, provided them with a strong foothold on the island. On 30 May the battle ended and Allied forces retreated across the mountains to Hora Sfakion and other southern areas and evacuated to Egypt.

The German occupation lasted for four years, a period once again marked by constant local opposition (such as in the villages of Kanadanos and Koustogerako in western Crete and the area of Arvi in central Crete). English and Commonwealth intelligence officers landed as Allied soldiers evacuated, and they organized extensive resistance networks. Most of these men were hidden in the mountains, in caves, and in monasteries, protected by the Cretans at enormous risk. A high point for the resistance movement came with the abduction of the German commander, General Kreipe, in 1944. The kidnapping was spectacular not only for its boldness, but because of the relatively amateurish group that successfully carried it out. However, reprisals to any resistance were swift and brutal.

In 1898 a Cretan government was set up in Crete with Prince George, the younger son of King George of Greece, as High Commissioner. However, the goal of most Cretans was unity with Greece. Angry reaction followed whenever the High Commissioner imposed restrictions on the people’s freedoms or changed methods of administration.

This unquenchable revolutionary spirit led to the “Revolution of Therisos” in 1905. The leader was Eleftherios Venizelos who had fought in the earlier independence struggles and had become Minister of Justice to Prince George. The revolution was short-lived, but support for Venizelos was widespread enough to force the resignation of Prince George.

The Great Powers withdrew their forces from Crete, the post of High Commissioner was abolished and after elections Venizelos emerged as the leader. When the Military League of Athens came to power, Venizelos was asked to become Prime Minister of Greece.

Finally, in 1913, union with Greece was realised. Under the Treaty of London, Sultan Mohammed II relinquished his formal rights to the island. In December, the Greek flag was raised at the Firkas fortress in Chania, with Venizelos and King Constantine in attendance, and Crete was unified with mainland Greece.

Crete was under constant threat of invasion by Turkey during the last years of Venetian rule. The invasion began in 1645 with the attack on Chania. Sixty thousand Turkish troops landed from a fleet of 400 ships and Chania soon fell. Rethimnon was the next target and in 1646 fell into Turkish hands. By 1648, the Ottoman Empire was in control of Crete, except for Iraklion where the siege lasted twenty-one years. Finally, on 27 September 1669, Iraklion surrendered. The lengthy battle had cost 117,000 Turkish lives and nearly 30,000 lives among the Cretans and Venetians.

Incredibly extensive material destruction followed the conquest: some churches were levelled, others were converted into mosques, and roads and fortifications fell into disrepair.

Many inhabitants fled Crete to escape the persecution of the Ottoman government, while thousands of others became prisoners or fled to the mountains. Large numbers of Turkish settlers arrived and added to the misery of the shrinking Christian population. The Cretans suffered under higher taxes than those in other regions of the Ottoman Empire, farmers became serfs, and private property was seized.

These slave-like conditions led to almost constant uprisings against Turkish control. Daskaloyannis led the first major rebellion in 1770, which was initially successful but was eventually put down by the Turkish forces. Severe reprisals against the Christian population followed this and most other uprisings.

The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Cretan participation was extensive. The Turks responded by seeking the aid of the Pasha of Egypt, and brutal campaigns crushed the island’s resistance. In 1832 a Greek state was established which, however, did not include Crete and the island passed to the Egyptians, in acknowledgement of their assistance.

Aided by volunteers and reinforcements from free Greece, the “Great Cretan Revolution” began in 1866 and the rebels scored a series of victories. However, as more Turkish forces landed on the island, reprisals, usually against non-combatants, became common. The holocaust at Moni Arkadiou in 1866 became a tragic symbol of Crete’s struggle for independence: hundreds of women and children took refuge in the monastery and, refusing to surrender to Turkish forces, blew up the powder magazine, burying themselves and 1,500 Turkish soldiers under the rubble.

Finally, after years of struggle, the Great Powers (Britain, France, Italy and Russia) decided that Turkey could no longer maintain control and intervened with the expulsion of Turkish forces in 1898 which led to the formation of the independent Cretan Republic.

In 1204 the Crusaders took Constantinople and dismantled the Byzantine Empire. Crete fell into the hands of Boniface of Monferrat, who then sold it to the Venetians for about 1000 pieces of silver. Crete was necessary to the Venetians as a cross-road for their commercial interests in the East. The Genoese, traditional rivals of the Venetians, opposed the occupation, along with the native Cretan population. During the first centuries of Venetian rule there were continuous rebellions.

The Venetian system of rule was oppressive and strictly maintained. Overlords, appointed directly from Venice, efficiently exploited the resources of Crete. Heavy taxes, low fixed prices for produce, and the confiscation of private land caused continuous local opposition and unrest.

Slowly, the Venetians relaxed their regime and permitted intermarriage and freedom of settlement anywhere on the island. With these changes, the social and economic life of many Cretans improved. During the Middle Ages, exports of corn, oil, and salt kept ports busy. Cretan wine was also widely exported and became famous throughout Europe. However, the system of serfdom and statutory labour lasted until the end of the Venetian rule.

After the final fall of Constantinople in 1453, Byzantine scholars took refuge in Crete. Thus, the island became a centre for Byzantine arts. Soon, the influences of the Italian Renaissance were combined with the principles of classical aesthetics and with Byzantine characteristics, and a new school of painting, the Cretan School, was formed. During this time the renowned icon painter Damaskinos studied with Dominikos Theotokopoulos, “El Greco”, at the school of Agia Ekaterini in Iraklion.

Education advanced with the development of lower and middle schools similar to those in Venice. Many Cretans studied at the universities of Venice and Padua and returned to Crete as doctors and lawyers. Monasteries, such as Moni Agarathou and Moni Vrondisi also became centres for learning and the scholar-monks of Crete became significant officials in the Orthodox Church.

As education flourished, so did the written word. The main literary figures during this time were Georgios Hortatzis, author of the dramatic work Erophile and Vincezos Kornaros with his work, Erotokritos. This is a masterpiece of Cretan literature that is still recited throughout the island.

During the Venetian occupation, Italian architecture spread rapidly across the island. Cretan towns (Iraklion) began to resemble Venetian towns, with buildings, fortresses, harbours and churches designed by Italian architects.

In the sixteenth century, with the threat of Turkish invasion imminent, work began on rebuilding the large fortresses. Over the course of a century, forced labour built the “Megalo Kastro” — the fortification of Iraklion, still standing today. All the major towns and harbours of Crete had such fortresses.

The Byzantine general, Nikiforos Fokas, liberated Crete from Arab rule in 961 A.D. Iraklion fell into Byzantine hands after a four month siege, with Arab losses estimated at 200,000. Fokas built the Byzantine castle of Temenos (Kanli Kastelli) and attempted to move the city of Iraklion there. This did not materialize and the city remained where it was. Christianity flourished again and Iraklion became the seat of an archbishop. Churches and monasteries sprang up all over the island. Some of the more important churches are: the Panagia Kera Church in Kritsa; the Rotunda of Michael Archangelos, Episkopi; Ai Yannis Kyr-Yannis Church, Alikianos; Agios Nikolaos Church, Kyriakoselia; Agios Fanourios Church of the Moni Varsamonerou; Agios Pandeleimonos Church, Pigi; and Agios Fanourios Church, Kitharida. Some of the important monasteries of the period are: Moni Arkadiou, Moni Palianis, Moni Gouverniotissa, Moni Agias Triadas, Moni Gouvernetou, Moni Vrondisi, Moni Agarathou, Moni Toplou, Moni Halepa, and Moni Preveli.

Also, during this time, Byzantine noble families and many of General Fokas’ troops settled on the island and built new villages.